Institutional complements or substitutes? Digital government, the rule of law, and investment in post-Soviet economies

Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) are widely recognized as instruments for enhancing economic integration and attracting Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). This study examines the impact of FTAs, particularly next-generation agreements such as the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP) and the European Union-Vietnam Free Trade Agreement (EVFTA), on FDI inflows to Vietnam. Using a Gravity Model and a panel dataset of 48 trading partners covering the period 2007–2023, this study quantifies the extent to which FTAs influence FDI attraction. The empirical results reveal that FTAs significantly contribute to increased FDI inflows. The overall effect of FTA participation is estimated at 5.64% (coefficient = 0.0549, p < 0.05), reinforcing the positive relationship between trade liberalization and investment attraction. However, the impact varies across agreements. The CPTPP has a stronger effect, increasing FDI inflows by approximately 9.47% (coefficient = 0.0905, p < 0.05), while the EVFTA does not exhibit a statistically significant impact. These findings highlight the effectiveness of next-generation FTAs in attracting investment, particularly when agreements include deeper commitments beyond tariff reductions. For Vietnam and other emerging economies, maximizing the benefits of FTAs requires complementary structural reforms, including institutional improvements, regulatory enhancements, and investment-friendly policies to sustain FDI inflows and strengthen global economic integration.

Acknowledgment
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support from the Banking Academy of Vietnam.

China’s involvement in Africa has become one of the contentious topics in the development literature. The background of the study is that Sino-African relations can be grouped into two phases thus: past relations and contemporary relations. The two phases are dissimilar, as past relations are categorized by solidarity against imperialism, while contemporary relations are characterized by economic relations. The study uses a historical approach to analyze China’s resurgence into Africa and Zimbabwe, a case study is used to examine the contemporary Sino-African relations. Secondary data were utilized to come to sound conclusion of the study. The study mainly found out that China’s resurgence into Africa presents both negative and positive impacts for Africa and that the negatives need to be regulated in order for African countries to benefit from the relations.

This study aims to assess how much digital skills are prioritized in public sector recruitment and identify key competency gaps among civil servants. A mixed-methods approach was employed, combining quantitative content analysis of 408 job postings from the official e-qyzmet.kz platform and an online survey among 200 “B” corps civil servants in central and regional government bodies. Survey participants were selected using purposive and nested sampling, with balanced regional representation. The findings reveal that 66.9% of job postings do not specify digital skills as a requirement, and 60% of surveyed civil servants reported that digital competencies were not mandatory for employment. Furthermore, 54.5% of respondents encountered difficulties in using government digital systems due to either a lack of experience or inadequate training. Regional government employees face greater barriers to accessing digital training than central agencies. Despite ongoing e-government initiatives, 56.5% of civil servants have never received formal digital skills training after being hired. These results highlight a misalignment between Kazakhstan’s digital transformation strategy and actual human capital development in the civil service. They emphasize an urgent need to introduce a standardized competency framework and structured digital skill assessments in civil service recruitment and training. Addressing these gaps is essential to strengthening digital governance and ensuring that civil servants are adequately prepared to operate in an increasingly digital administrative environment.

Acknowledgments
This study is funded by the Committee of Science of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan (No. BR21882308) within the framework of program-targeted funding “Evolution of political institutions and structures in the history of Kazakhstan (XIX–XXI centuries).”