Sustainable marketing strategies in the context of a globalized clothing and textile ( C & T ) sector in Zimbabwe ”

This article provides a new perspective on sustainable marketing strategies in the context of a globalized clothing and textile (C&T) sector in Zimbabwe by linking two diverse streams of literature, namely, globalization and marketing strategy. A quantitative approach was adopted to obtain data from 127 respondents using a two-stage cluster sample. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) confirmed three of four hypothesized relationships, namely that integrated co-alliances, modern technology and national policy impact the sustainability of clothing and textile sector in Zimbabwe. The adoption of a standardized marketing strategy characterized by uniform application of the marketing mix elements with minor modifications will have a significant impact on the capacity of the C&T sector to withstand the adverse effects of globalization. The research extends the body of existing knowledge on marketing strategy in the context of globalization of Zimbabwe’s C&T sector, and argues empirically for a new approach to developing and implementing competitive marketing strategies. The research findings will enable companies in the C&T sector of a developing economy to craft competitive marketing strategies, which incorporate internal company capabilities and technology, and also recognize the role of national policy in the globalization discourse. Africa Makasi (South Africa), Krishna Govender (South Africa) BUSINESS PERSPECTIVES LLC “СPС “Business Perspectives” Hryhorii Skovoroda lane, 10, Sumy, 40022, Ukraine www.businessperspectives.org Sustainable marketing strategies in the context of a globalized clothing and textile (C&T) sector


INTRODUCTION
Although the literature indicates that openness plays a prominent role in explaining the economic growth and productivity of firms (Krugman, Obsfeld, & Melitz, 2012, p. 37), little is known on how organizations should react to changes in market competition generated by trade liberalization (Frésard & Valta, 2013, p. 6). Due to economic globalization, business leaders are expected to monitor changes in the market place, while also aligning their strategy to the realities of the context in which their businesses operate (Chinomona & Sibanda, 2012, p. 46). Some researchers (Frésard & Valta, 2013, p. 7) argue that changes in corporate strategies and consideration of the broad effects of globalization on business strategy are required. Marketing strategy development, which has for long been defined in a rather restrictive way by solely demanding the effective management of the traditional marketing mix elements, should now take a new approach, which incorporates the effect of external factors on business strategy (Menon, Bharadwaj, Adidam, & Edison, 2015, p. 224). Due to globalization, the marketing landscape has become more complex, thereby creating huge knock-on effects on emerging and developing economies (Boström & Micheletti, 2016, p. 370;Manzungu, 2012, p. 45). For example, the lack of effective policy instruments to absorb both the domestic and external shocks has also condemned many companies to oblivion (Manzungu, 2012, p. 45). Kaplinsky (2013, p. 55) argues that many clothing and textile companies in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) did not adjust well to the new globalized environment. In Zimbabwe, for example, the once thriving clothing and textile industry withered under the combined impact of domestic and international factors (Manzungu, 2012, p. 46). The aforementioned researcher argued that "the negative impact of this transformation was manifested in a declining relative contribution to total manufacturing output, falling productivity levels, lack of capital investment, a large and significant contraction in sector employment, and stagnant export performance, all of which occurred in the context of rapidly expanding domestic demand for clothing, which was increasingly fed by imports" (Manzungu, 2012, p. 45).
This paper builds on the global marketing strategy model proposed by Zou and Cavusgil (2002, p. 43), which identifies standardization, integration and coordination as the principal factors, which determine success or failure of a marketing strategy in the contemporary market place. In light of the above, our current research sought to critique marketing strategy making in the context of globalization of Zimbabwe's clothing and textile sector, and argue empirically for a new approach to developing and implementing competitive marketing strategies. More specifically, the study focused on the need to identify possible sustainable competitive strategies, which could be used by Zimbabwean clothing and textile companies to mitigate the impact of globalization on the sector. The literature will now focus on the importance of key variables, namely standardization, integration, information technology and government policies and their relationship with the sustainability of clothing and textile companies through competitive marketing strategy development, and explain how these are conceptualized into a theoretical model which is empirically evaluated.

Gaining competitive advantage
The theory of competitive advantage has received extensive coverage in the management literature (Besanko, Dranove, Shanley, & Schaefer, 2010, p. 58). Sirmon, Hitt, Ireland, and Gilbert (2011) argue that "a vibrant corporate strategy is an essential management tool and is important to a firm's overall performance and achievement of competitive advantage" (p. 1400). Porter (1985) argues that superior performance can be achieved in a competitive industry through the pursuit of a generic strategy, which he defines as "the development of overall cost leadership, differentiation, or a focused approach to industry competition" (p. 55). The aforementioned author further argues that a company has to be explicit in terms of the strategy chosen, or else it will be 'stuck in the middle' and not perform effectively, compared to companies, which choose a specific generic competitive strategy (Porter & Kramer, 2011, p. 65 Chirisa & Dumba, 2012, p. 9) assert that aligning the strategy to market requirements is the only sustainable marketing strategy, which will help guarantee the future of clothing and textile companies in Africa and other developing nations. Keegan and Green (2000) argue that "through adopting the strategy of standardization, global marketing solutions, which assist in creating company sustainability on the global stage can be achieved" (p. 35). Besides, "there also exists the possibility to adapt the activities that have been carried out in one country successfully to other countries, thus, reducing operating costs as a company pursues its global marketing activities" (Johansson, 2000, p. 57). Research has also indicated that when a standardized product is offered, it generates confidence in the consumer (Madar & Neacsu, 2010, p. 55; Vivas-Lуpez, 2016, p. 950). Cunningham and Ferrell (2015, p. 233) support the use of standardized marketing strategies, as companies expand their market bases through the process of market development. In order for a standardized marketing strategy to be effective, changes to the marketing strategy must be instituted, as the company moves from one global market to the other, and Svensson (2001) suggests that "the most viable standardization option is achieved through the use of an approach that combines elements of standardization and adaptation to create a glocal marketing strategy" (p. 10). In light of the above, it is hypothesized that:

Standardization
H1: the use of a standardized marketing strategy positively influences the sustainability of a company in the face of globalization.

Integration of marketing activities
When the internal elements of an organization are closely linked to one another, it enables the organization to coordinate its strategies with much ease and success ( H2: the sustainability of an enterprise is positively influenced by the degree of integration of marketing strategy activities in view of global competition.

Government policies
While many company executives would like to see the state assuming a minimum role (often restricted to regulatory) in trade and commerce, the new reality demands that the state actively participates in creating an enabling business environment particularly so for companies in developing economies (Weller, 2014, p. 728). Brown and Ainley (2009) state that "the state simply connects various stakeholders from different backgrounds while regulating the industry for the benefit of its corporate citizens" (p. 17). Since globalization is a permanent feature in the business discourse, Giddens (2000) argues that "our run away world does not need less, but more government" (p. 25). In support of the aforementioned, Stiglitz (2002) argues that "an important task of a government is to protect jobs and vulnerable sectors of the economy such as the clothing and textile industry" (p. 57). Within the globalization discourse, policy-makers should be highly critical of market conditions in order to save the industry from total collapse ( in Zimbabwe before macroeconomic stability, hence, its failure to realize any meaningful benefits. While some of this could be traced to the lack of capacity of companies in the industry, a good measure of it can be ascribed to political and legislation policies, which run at cross purposes with business strategy (Moyo, 2014). Thus, the hypothesis is postulated as follows: H3: the existence of enabling national policies positively influences the sustainability of the clothing and textile industry in a globalized industry.

Information technology
Technology is the engine that drives the globalization wave and should, therefore, be an integral component of company's current and future plans (Knight, 2000, p. 16). Levitt (1983) long predicted that "technological advances and technical standardization are expected to drive globalization" (p. 95), therefore, "globalization is changing the way in which knowledge is produced, converted to technology and the technology is transformed into goods and services" (Knight, 2000, p. 16). It is quite evident that the current processes of globalization are made possible because of technology (Blázquez, 2014, p. 99). Thus, Nayak, Singh, Padhye, & Wang (2015) assert that "the survival of companies is firmly attached to how well they embrace modern technology to improve the efficiency of their operations and, thus, gain a competitive advantage" (p. 4). Lui (2015) further argues that "it is not only the availability of technology that matters for the success of a company, but also the amount and quality of internal skills adapted to apply available technology for competitive advantage" (p. 23). Ali and Habib (2012, p. 38) propose that the technological and marketing capabilities of a company must be evaluated simultaneously, as the firm seeks to build new dynamic capabilities, which create future value. Plieth, Bullinger, & Hansen (2012) suggest that since "companies domiciled in developing economies often lack the resources and procedures to successfully compete at a global level" (p. 125), a radical shift in thinking by the companies is, therefore, needed through "adopting a more entrepreneurial thinking which demands the creation and use of innovative strategies which help drive the company into the future amidst the challenges of globalization" (Plieth et al., 2012, p. 126). Even though there is an overwhelming evidence about the relationship between the use of modern technology and the ability of a company to build future value, this has not been empirically evaluated in developing countries. Thus, it is hypothesized that: H4: an association exists between the extent to which modern technologies are used by a company (as part of its overall marketing strategy), and its sustainability in view of global market competition.

RESEARCH CONTEXT
The unpreceded closure of many clothing and textile (C&T) companies in Africa in the 1990s was largely due to the International Monetary Fund (IMF) driven policies, which favored economic liberalization (Kanyenze, 2006, p. 57). In order to rescue the clothing and textile companies, successive preferential agreements were signed (Majtenyi, 2010); most notable among them was the Africa Growth Opportunity Act (AGOA), which unfortunately benefitted some larger African clothing manufacturers, while at the same time fueling the entry of cheap clothing and textile items into domestic market spaces of many African countries (Majtenyi, 2010). The reality, however, is that these agreements did not often yield the intended benefits, other than fueling the importation of cheap clothing from developed nations, thus, affecting the viability of business in developing countries (Majtenyi, 2010). To this end, the aforementioned author, thus, attributes the decline in C&T manufacturing in Africa to the effects of globalization rather than poor governance. Zimbabwe's C&T industry is represented by two associations, namely The Zimbabwe Clothing Manufacturers' Association (ZCMA) and The Zimbabwe Textiles Manufacturers' Association (ZTMA), which represent the interests of the few remaining companies through government lobbying and advocacy (Moyo, 2014). The industry is facing serious operational challenges and it is operating at well below 10% capacity (Moyo, 2014, p. 45). The peak of Zimbabwe's clothing and textile sector was when it used to employ over 20,000, but has since been revised downwards to current levels of well below 4,000 (Moyo, 2014, p. 45). Currently, the local C&T companies only contribute a mere 15% to Zimbabwe's consumption, while the balance is all taken up by imported clothes (Moyo, 2014, p. 46). The industry suffers from a myriad of challenges ranging from an unstable political situation, which makes business planning difficult, to high utility costs, which makes local products uncompetitive on the global market (Manzungu, 2012, p. 47). The current policy pursued by the Zimbabwean government was aptly called "The Look East Policy", which is deliberately structured to promote investments from Asian markets (particularly China), coupled with an unstable socio-political environment has made already desperate situation even more challenging (Moyo, 2014, p. 48). From the early 1990s onwards, the Zimbabwean C&T sector has increasingly been exposed to international competition, primarily due to the adoption of the Economic Structural Adjustment Program (ESAP) at the behest of the IMF (Kanyenze, 2006). This resulted in massive unemployment due to retrenchment in a sector assigned with a social function to absorb relatively low-skilled labor (Chirisa & Dumba, 2012, p. 3). In light of the research context, this paper reports the results of a survey conducted in the C&T sector in Zimbabwe using the methodology below to address the hypothesized relationships and identify possible sustainable competitive strategies, which could be used by Zimbabwean C&T to mitigate the impact of globalization on the sector.

METHODOLOGY
Using a two-stage cluster (probability) sampling technique (Thompson, 2012, p In a well-fitting model, the lower limit is close to 0, while the upper limit should be less than 0.08. The above criteria were followed in making the final decision on the goodness of fit of each generated model. Each of the four predictor constructs were analyzed to confirm their relationships with their measurements before a collective analysis was done in order to produce the final model whose results are this given in paper. Figure 1 reflects the relevant paths and p-values. Support or lack thereof for the hypotheses could be ascertained by examining the directionality (positive or negative) of the path coefficients, and the significance of the p-values. The standardized path coefficients are expected to be at least 0.2 and preferably greater than 0.3 (Chin, 1998, p. 296). Table 1, which reflects data on the 'goodness of fit' of the model (Figure 1), confirms a positive fit between the measurements and the constructs which is evident by the CFI and TLI indices of 1.000 and 1.000, respectively. From the path coefficients and p-values reflected in Figure 1 above, it is concluded that only hypotheses H2, H3 and H4 are supported, since they have positive path coefficients of 0.12., 0.840 and 0.210, respectively. However, with respect to H3, although the results point to a significant association between integrated co-alliances and sustainability, the standardized path coefficient of 0.120 implies that the path adds minimal value to the understanding of the relationship between marketing strategies through integrated co-alliances and their ability to sustain a company in the global environment, since Chin (1998) proposes that standardized paths should be at least 0.20 and ideally above 0.30 in order to be considered meaningful. The summary of these findings is shown in Table 2 below.

Standardized marketing strategies and globalization
Cunningham and Ferrell (2015, p. 235) support the use of standardized marketing strategies, as companies expand their market bases through the process of market development. Although the hypothesis (H1) is not fully supported by the results of this study, the moderate success (sustainability) of certain companies is attributed to standardization, as the companies are not differentiating product characteristics for the domestic market from those for international markets. This study supports the views of Roberts and Thoburn (2002) who note that "companies are competing and constantly confront the competitive challenge from firms in low-wage industrialized economies that are able to produce more cheaply" (p. 7). In the case of developing countries, in order to mitigate these challenges, effective marketing strategies which focus on cost reduction, quality and efficiency must be adopted. The increased productivity through standardization is consistent with previous studies (Keegan & Green, 2000, p. 35). Svensson (2001) suggests that "the most viable standardization option is achieved through the use of an approach that combines elements of standardization and adaptation to create a glocal marketing strategy" (p. 8).
Since standardization of products and international marketing strategy facilitates the realization of economies of scale in production and marketing, firms must pursue a standardized product and international marketing strategy to be successful in the global market. Through following a standardized marketing strategy, huge cost reductions will be achieved and this should stand as a major benefit for companies in developing countries if they are to remain relevant (Ghantous, 2008).

Integration and collaboration of marketing activities
The need for companies in the sector to 'integrate and coordinate' was highlighted in this study, which confirms what the theory espouses (Mentzer & Zacharia, 2000, p. 551). Previous studies also consider strategic alliances as "long-term collaborative arrangements between two or more firms to execute specific transactions for mutual gain and to maximize performance through cost reduction, knowledge acquisition, and/or market expansion" (Peng, 2009, p. 15). While guided by the results and the support from the reviewed literature, it is quite evident that this information is useful in the context of Zimbabwe's clothing and textile sector where comarketing alliances may indeed provide the answer to the current challenges faced. It is, therefore, concluded that while companies need to compete with others, they also need to cooperate through alliances and integrative strategies so as to remain sustainable. Distinct from traditional value chain analysis which focuses on a single company and serve as a unit of analysis, our proposition encompasses multiple firms and their resources and capabilities (Schweizer, 2005, p. 39). Consequently, the unit of analysis has changed from focusing on a single company to focusing on a value network of suppliers, partners and customers (Holweg & Helo, 2014, p. 232). Clothing and textile companies can, thus, enter into strategic alliances to create collaborative networks which help increase both the scope and reach, as resources are pooled together.

The role of technology
It is evident that the survival of companies is firmly associated with how well they embrace modern technology for efficient adaptation, while they also seek to improve the efficiency of their operations and, thus, gain competitive advantage. This view is also shared by Karlicek et al. (2013, p. 140) who assert that the extent of technological adoption and usage by a company directly links with its success and chances to capture existing opportunities in the global marketplace and be able to adapt its strategy at low costs. As the goal of competitiveness through technology is pursued, it must be noted that technology is not the only variable which matters, but also the quality of entrepreneurial posture (Ali & Habib, 2012, p. 37). Therefore, technological and marketing capabilities of a company must be evaluated simultaneously, as the firm seeks to build new dynamic capabilities, which create future value.

Government policy
The findings show that policy-makers should enact stringent regulations to prevent the entry of cheap commodities into the C&T market; however, the role of the state in this instance is not to stifle competition, but to allow fair competition while protecting the interests of the consumer. These results also point to the strategic role played by the state in infrastructure development or direct support to corporate bodies in support of their internal marketing strategies.

RECOMMENDATIONS
The implications of the findings are that the adoption of a standardized marketing strategy characterized by uniform application of the marketing mix elements with minor modifications to suit the variations from place to place will have a significant impact on the capacity of the C&T sector companies to withstand the adverse effects of globalization. This is because the development of cost advantages by ailing C&T sector companies could enable them to com-pete effectively with cheaper imports that continues to flood the market in Zimbabwe. Differentiation benefits on quality arising from a standardized marketing strategy could also assist the clothing sector companies to service the higher end sections of the market. It is also common knowledge that the development of a strategy is the cornerstone of the success of a company.

LIMITATIONS OF THE RESEARCH
The greatest limitation was the sample size used in the research, as many companies either refused to participate in the research or were in the process of shutting down, and, hence, saw no benefit in participating in the study. The result was that only 75 companies out of over 89 initially targeted participated in the study. Many companies in Zimbabwe are finding it extremely difficult to operate owing to a number of challenges, which exist outside the domain of marketing. Some of the challenges relate to the prevailing political-economic landscape, which many perceive as being unfriendly and, therefore, unfavorable to business survival. The respondents were mainly located in the metropolitan areas of the three biggest cities of Zimbabwe, thus, this may have some influence on their behavior and values. However, a balanced sample selection was achieved through the use of a two stage cluster sampling technique.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
The present study focused on marketing strategies in the context of globalization through an analysis of companies in the C&T sector of one developing country in Africa, namely, Zimbabwe. Future studies may take the form of cross sectional studies across the region in order to assess how marketing strategies in other regional countries such as Madagascar and South Africa seem to be working in preventing the total to near collapse of their clothing and textile sectors. Such a wider study may help to provide answers beyond the ones provided by the current research. Future studies could also be conducted using a longitudinal case study to provide a holistic picture of the effects of marketing strategies on the clothing and textile sector.